Wikiciv - User contributions [en]

Lye

2025-05-08T20:10:48Z

Kovoc: Added prerequisites, to be more in line with style

Lye is the common name of a caustic hydroxide base, either sodium hydroxide ([[Soda Ash|soda]] lye) or potassium hydroxide ([[potash]] lye). It's most commonly used for making [[soap]] by mixing lye with fats, but can also be used to cure and tenderize foods in small amounts. Sodium hydroxide may additionally be used in the production of paper, and water treatment.

== Prerequisites ==
''From alkali carbonates''

* [[Potash]] or [[Soda Ash|soda ash]]
* [[Quicklime]]
* [[Fire]] (as heat source)
* [[Pottery]]

''From alkali chlorides (e.g., salt)''

* [[Salt]]
* [[Electricity]]
* [[Iron]]
* [[Carbon]] electrodes
* [[Mercury]]

== Production ==

=== Production from Alkali Carbonates ===
Potash lye is generally easier to produce using primitive methods than soda lye, as [[potash]] (K2CO3) is much easier to procure than [[Soda Ash|soda ash]] (Na2CO3), the latter of which requires the use of the ash from certain coastal plants, whereas former merely needs wood ash.

The general procedure is as follows, first prepare a solution of slaked lime by adding [[quicklime]] to water, 2 parts by weight of quicklime for potash, 1 part by weight for soda ash. Do this slowly as the reaction is very exothermic. Next, simply add your carbonate of choice into the solution, either 5 parts by weight of potash or 2 parts by weight of soda lime. Then the solution can be carefully boiled down in a non-metallic container (a solution of hot lye will easily eat through most metals, and will easily eat through flesh), leaving relatively pure lye. This can be recrystallized if higher purity is needed.

Two reactions have occurred in this process. First, the slaking of quicklime to produce slaked lime:

: CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2

Then, the double displacement of the carbonate with the slaked lime to produce lye and limestone:

: K2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 → 2 KOH + CaCO3

or,

: Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 → 2 NaOH + CaCO3

=== Production from Alkali Chlorides ===
[[File:HgNaOHElectrolysis.png|thumb|A diagram of a Castner–Kellner cell.]]
Once an abundant source of [[electricity]] has been procured, the alkali carbonate process becomes far too inefficient to be considered worthwhile. The next step in technology is therefore producing lye using the chloralkali process, which is to say, using electrolysis to turn salt into lye. Seeing as sodium chloride is by far the most abundant soluble salt on the planet, this means that rather than potash lye being the most efficient to produce, now soda lye is the most efficient.

The lowest tech version of the chloralkali process is the Castner-Kellner process, wherein a thin layer of mercury is used to separate the different sections of the cell (preventing the formation of [[Bleach|sodium hypochlorite]]), while permitting the movement of sodium ions. This is a result of mercury's ability to form an alloy with sodium.

The adjacent image shows the cross-section of a Castner-Kellner cell.<blockquote>The carbon anodes (''A'', ''A'') pass into the outer compartments which contain brine, and the iron cathodes into the middle compartment which contains sodium hydroxide solution. When the current passes, chlorine is evolved at the anodes and flows out through pipes (not shown), and sodium is produced on the surface of the mercury (''M'') which covers the floor of the whole apparatus. The sodium forms an amalgam with the mercury, and by rocking the apparatus on the device, ''B'', ''B'', the sodium amalgam flows into the compartment, ''D'', where the sodium is liberated by the action of the electric current, which passes between the cathode and the amalgam. The sodium reacts with the water forming hydrogen, which passes off through pipes (not shown) and sodium hydroxide, which flows into a special tank. Both the chlorine and sodium hydroxide are nearly pure.<ref>Newell, Lyman Churchill (1903). ''[https://archive.org/details/descriptivechemi00newerich Descriptive Chemistry].''</ref></blockquote>

== Uses ==
Lye is a powerful base, particularly useful in the production of [[soap]]. Soda lye in particular may also be used in the production of [[paper]] from wood, via soda pulping.

== Dependencies ==

* '''Lye'''
** [[Soap]]

== See also ==

* [[Soap]]

Potash

2025-05-08T20:05:30Z

Kovoc: Added prerequisites, to be more in line with style

[[File:Campfire scar 08319.JPG|thumb|Wood ash from a campfire, a major source of potash.]]
Potassium carbonate, or potash, is a carbonate salt notable for its presence in wood ash and ease of extraction therefrom. Potash has several uses and is extremely simple to produce in large quantities even with the most basic of technology, this makes it a critical primitive chemical feedstock. It may be used to produce [[lye]] by a reaction with slaked lime (calcium hydroxide). It is a necessary compound for the production of [[saltpeter]] from organic material and may also be used in baking as a leavening agent.

== Prerequisites ==

* [[Fire]]
* [[Wood]]
* [[Pottery]]

== Production ==
Potash is extremely simple to make, in fact it doesn't require the use of any chemical reaction, only a simple extraction. All that is needed are a piece of cloth, two containers (one wider than the other), and a lot of water. First, cut a hole in the bottom of the wider container and stuff the cloth down in the bottom to act as a filter. Next, place the wider container over top of the other container, so that any liquid from the top drains into the bottom. Now, fill the top container with wood ash and begin pouring water through the wood ash. Continue this until the water changed from dark yellow to clear (or, light yellow if energy is being conserved). Now, all that needs to be done is boiling down the liquid. This should be done in a non-metallic container (glazed pottery, glass, etc.) as potash is mildly caustic. What is left will be relatively pure potash which can be used for any of the above mentioned processes. If higher purity is needed, potash may be recrystallized from [[methanol]] or [[ethanol]], but this is a very inconvenient process.

Hardwood ash tends to consist of about 10% potash, therefore, if one fully leaches their wood ash, they are likely to get 1 g of potash for every 10 g of wood ash. However, this is rather energy inefficient as it necessitates boiling off exponentially more water per amount of potash. This, combined with the fact that anyone rebuilding society is likely to have a massive surplus of wood ash from heating, cooking, metallurgy, etc. means that it is generally advisable to only seep out about half of that amount.

Plough

2025-05-08T19:51:59Z

Kovoc: Made redirect to plow

#REDIRECT [[Plow]]

Plow

2025-05-08T19:50:49Z

Kovoc: Created page; added section about the moldboard plow

[[File:04-09-12-Schaupflügen-Fahrenwalde-RalfR-IMG 1232.jpg|thumb|Moldboard plowing using a team of horses.]]
A plow is an agricultural implement used to turn the soil prior to sowing it with seeds. plows are traditionally drawn by draft animals (oxen or horses), which serve to lift a large burden from the human population. The invention of the plow is an absolute necessity for anyone endeavoring to rebuild society, as the plow has likely freed up more human labor than any other invention in human history.

Without a plow, it is necessary to either agitate the soil manually using a hoe, or to turn the soil manually using a shovel, depending on the exact nature of the soil to be tilled. Very light, fertile soils, such as the alluvial soils which once characterized Egypt and Mesopotamia can be tilled using merely a hoe. However, heavier and less fertile soils universally require the soil to be turned for crops to be able to establish themselves.

Although the aforementioned areas in the world with light, fertile soil may be able to make use of an ard for tillage, a rudimentary plow which merely agitates the soil like a hoe, rather than turning it like a shovel, most soils will require the use a moldboard plow. A moldboard plow slices and flips the soil as it is moved, rather than merely agitating it.

== The Moldboard Plow ==
[[File:Jethro Wood moldboard plow.jpg|thumb|The archetypal mass-produced cast iron moldboard plow. The section labelled ''B'' on ''fig. 1'' is the plowshare. The shaded part to which it is attached is the moldboard.]]
In most regions, a moldboard plow will provide better, more effective tillage than an ard would. A moldboard plow is composed of two major components, the plowshare and the moldboard. The plowshare is a sharp implement at the front of the plow whose purpose is to cut through sod and weeds. The moldboard is the section which flips the slices which the plowshare makes. A coulter may also be present, which is a sharp blade affixed in front of the plowshare to further help cut through the soil. The rest of the plow consists merely of structural components which serve to hold it together and allow it to be drawn by the draft animals.

Lye

2025-05-08T15:36:40Z

Kovoc: Added section for more efficient chloralkali process

Lye is the common name of a caustic hydroxide base, either sodium hydroxide (soda lye) or potassium hydroxide (potash lye). It's most commonly used for making [[soap]] by mixing lye with fats, but can also be used to cure and tenderize foods in small amounts. Sodium hydroxide may additionally be used in the production of paper, and water treatment.
== Production ==

=== Production from Alkali Carbonates ===
Potash lye is generally easier to produce using primitive methods than soda lye, as [[potash]] (K2CO3) is much easier to procure than [[Soda Ash|soda ash]] (Na2CO3), the latter of which requires the use of the ash from certain coastal plants, whereas former merely needs wood ash.

The general procedure is as follows, first prepare a solution of slaked lime by adding quicklime to water, 2 parts by weight of quicklime for potash, 1 part by weight for soda ash. Do this slowly as the reaction is very exothermic. Next, simply add your carbonate of choice into the solution, either 5 parts by weight of potash or 2 parts by weight of soda lime. Then the solution can be carefully boiled down in a non-metallic container (a solution of hot lye will easily eat through most metals, and will easily eat through flesh), leaving relatively pure lye. This can be recrystallized if higher purity is needed.

Two reactions have occurred in this process. First, the slaking of quicklime to produce slaked lime:

: CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2

Then, the double displacement of the carbonate with the slaked lime to produce lye and limestone:

: K2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 → 2 KOH + CaCO3

or,

: Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 → 2 NaOH + CaCO3

=== Production from Alkali Chlorides ===
[[File:HgNaOHElectrolysis.png|thumb|A diagram of a Castner–Kellner cell.]]
Once an abundant source of [[electricity]] has been procured, the alkali carbonate process becomes far too inefficient to be considered worthwhile. The next step in technology is therefore producing lye using the chloralkali process, which is to say, using electrolysis to turn salt into lye. Seeing as sodium chloride is by far the most abundant soluble salt on the planet, this means that rather than potash lye being the most efficient to produce, now soda lye is the most efficient.

The lowest tech version of the chloralkali process is the Castner-Kellner process, wherein a thin layer of mercury is used to separate the different sections of the cell (preventing the formation of [[Bleach|sodium hypochlorite]]), while permitting the movement of sodium ions. This is a result of mercury's ability to form an alloy with sodium.

The adjacent image shows the cross-section of a Castner-Kellner cell.<blockquote>The carbon anodes (''A'', ''A'') pass into the outer compartments which contain brine, and the iron cathodes into the middle compartment which contains sodium hydroxide solution. When the current passes, chlorine is evolved at the anodes and flows out through pipes (not shown), and sodium is produced on the surface of the mercury (''M'') which covers the floor of the whole apparatus. The sodium forms an amalgam with the mercury, and by rocking the apparatus on the device, ''B'', ''B'', the sodium amalgam flows into the compartment, ''D'', where the sodium is liberated by the action of the electric current, which passes between the cathode and the amalgam. The sodium reacts with the water forming hydrogen, which passes off through pipes (not shown) and sodium hydroxide, which flows into a special tank. Both the chlorine and sodium hydroxide are nearly pure.<ref>Newell, Lyman Churchill (1903). ''[https://archive.org/details/descriptivechemi00newerich Descriptive Chemistry].''</ref></blockquote>

== Uses ==
Lye is a powerful base, particularly useful in the production of [[soap]]. Soda lye in particular may also be used in the production of [[paper]] from wood, via soda pulping.

== Dependencies ==

* '''Lye'''
** [[Soap]]

== See also ==

* [[Soap]]

Anesthesia

2025-05-08T15:30:00Z

Kovoc:

[[File:Diethyl ether chemical structure.svg|thumb|The chemical structure of diethyl ether, the first general anesthetic agent.]]
Anesthesia is the medical induction of insensibility. This is accomplished through the use of agents called anesthetics. There are two major forms of anesthesia used medically, general and local. General anesthetics work systematically, inducing complete insensibility which appears like a deep sleep. Local anesthetics work locally, inducing a local inability to feel pain, but allowing the patient to remain fully conscious and unsedated. The first safe general anesthetic was diethyl ether and the first local anesthetic was cocaine.

While [[Ethanol]] is often thought of as an anesthetic, and while it can technically induce anesthesia by its GABAergic action, it has the major problem that the difference between an effective and lethal dose is hard to determine and its dosage cannot be rapidly changed. Whereas, diethyl ether, being volatile enough to be inhaled, allows rapid reduction or augmentation of the received dose.

== General Anesthetics ==
[[File:Portable anaesthetic kit, Germany, 1914-1918 Wellcome L0059539.jpg|thumb|A WWI portable anesthetic kit, showing the cotton mask upon which chloroform would have been dropped.]]
The most easily produced general anesthetic agents to produce are diethyl ether and chloroform. However, of the two, diethyl ether is by far the safer. Chloroform is likely cancerous and has been known to cause sudden cardiac arrest. This is why its use was supplanted by that of ether in hospital settings by the late 19th century. However, chloroform does have one major advantage over diethyl ether which meant it was still used by military surgeons and other surgeons who had to preform surgery in makeshift environments, it is almost entirely nonflammable. Diethyl ether is incredibly flammable, to the extent where there are stories of open bottles of it being lit from candles set on other sides of desks. This, combined with the fact that only hospitals could afford expensive ventilation equipment, meant that it was regarded as a worthwhile tradeoff to allow for a slight chance of cardiac arrest in exchange for the flammability risk to be eliminated.

== Local Anesthetics ==
The first local anesthetic to be discovered and used clinically was cocaine. In fact, it is still in use today in delicate surgeries involving the nose, as it has the highly desirable quality of acting as both a local anesthetic and a vasoconstrictor (a drug which causes the blood vessels to narrow). This is desirable as it provides a much longer duration of action for the local anesthesia than would otherwise be possible.

However, because cocaine requires the leaves of the tropical coca plant, it is likely to be impractical to use cocaine as a local anesthetic. The second local anesthetic to be discovered, benzocaine, is a convenient substitute as it can be relatively easily produced from aniline, an aromatic feedstock chemical which is one of the backbones of pharmaceutical chemistry.

Anesthesia

2025-05-08T15:24:41Z

Kovoc: Created page; added two major classes

[[File:Diethyl ether chemical structure.svg|thumb|The chemical structure of diethyl ether, the first general anesthetic agent.]]
Anesthesia is the medical induction of insensibility. This is accomplished through the use of agents called anesthetics. There are two major forms of anesthesia used medically, general and local. General anesthetics work systematically, inducing complete insensibility which appears like a deep sleep. Local anesthetics work locally, inducing a local inability to feel pain, but allowing the patient to remain fully conscious and unsedated. The first safe general anesthetic was diethyl ether and the first local anesthetic was cocaine. [[Ethanol]] is often thought of as an anesthetic and, while it can technically induce anesthesia by its GABAergic action, it has the major problem that the difference between an effective and lethal dose is hard to determine and its dosage cannot be rapidly changed. Whereas, diethyl ether, being volatile enough to be inhaled, allows rapid reduction or augmentation of the received dose.

== General Anesthetics ==
[[File:Portable anaesthetic kit, Germany, 1914-1918 Wellcome L0059539.jpg|thumb|A WWI portable anesthetic kit, showing the cotton mask upon which chloroform would have been dropped.]]
The most easily produced general anesthetic agents to produce are diethyl ether and chloroform. However, of the two, diethyl ether is by far the safer. Chloroform is likely cancerous and has been known to cause sudden cardiac arrest. This is why its use was supplanted by that of ether in hospital settings by the late 19th century. However, chloroform does have one major advantage over diethyl ether which meant it was still used by military surgeons and other surgeons who had to preform surgery in makeshift environments, it is almost entirely nonflammable. Diethyl ether is incredibly flammable, to the extent where there are stories of open bottles of it being lit from candles set on other sides of desks. This, combined with the fact that only hospitals could afford expensive ventilation equipment, meant that it was regarded as a worthwhile tradeoff to allow for a slight chance of cardiac arrest in exchange for the flammability risk to be eliminated.

== Local Anesthetics ==
The first local anesthetic to be discovered and used clinically was cocaine. In fact, it is still in use today in delicate surgeries involving the nose, as it has the highly desirable quality of acting as both a local anesthetic and a vasoconstrictor (a drug which causes the blood vessels to narrow). This is desirable as it provides a much longer duration of action for the local anesthesia than would otherwise be possible.

However, because cocaine requires the leaves of the tropical coca plant, it is likely to be impractical to use cocaine as a local anesthetic. The second local anesthetic to be discovered, benzocaine, is a convenient substitute as it can be relatively easily produced from aniline, an aromatic feedstock chemical which is one of the backbones of pharmaceutical chemistry.

Iron pyrite

2025-05-08T10:39:00Z

Kovoc: Added a summary of uses

[[File:Pyrit 01.jpg|thumb|A sample of iron pyrite with large crystals.]]
'''Iron pyrite''' is an iron sulfide with the chemical formula FeS2. Iron pyrite is the most common sulfide material worldwide and therefore is quite notable for its role in providing a source of sulfur in non-volcanic regions.

== Uses ==
Iron pyrite is most notable for its [[sulfur]] content, which makes it a vital mineral for anyone seeking to rebuild chemical industry in a region without access to volcanic sulfur.

'''Iron pyrite''' can be used to form sparks and create [[fire]].

'''Iron pyrite''' is a base material for the production of [[sulfur dioxide]] for use in [[paper]] production and manufacture of [[sulfuric acid]].

Potash

2025-05-08T10:30:30Z

Kovoc: Added useful anecdotal evidence from my own experiments, can be removed later

[[File:Campfire scar 08319.JPG|thumb|Wood ash from a campfire, a major source of potash.]]
Potassium carbonate, or potash, is a carbonate salt notable for its presence in wood ash and ease of extraction therefrom. Potash has several uses and is extremely simple to produce in large quantities even with the most basic of technology, this makes it a critical primitive chemical feedstock. It may be used to produce [[lye]] by a reaction with slaked lime (calcium hydroxide). It is a necessary compound for the production of [[saltpeter]] from organic material and may also be used in baking as a leavening agent.

== Production ==
Potash is extremely simple to make, in fact it doesn't require the use of any chemical reaction, only a simple extraction. All that is needed are a piece of cloth, two containers (one wider than the other), and a lot of water. First, cut a hole in the bottom of the wider container and stuff the cloth down in the bottom to act as a filter. Next, place the wider container over top of the other container, so that any liquid from the top drains into the bottom. Now, fill the top container with wood ash and begin pouring water through the wood ash. Continue this until the water changed from dark yellow to clear (or, light yellow if energy is being conserved). Now, all that needs to be done is boiling down the liquid. This should be done in a non-metallic container (glazed pottery, glass, etc.) as potash is mildly caustic. What is left will be relatively pure potash which can be used for any of the above mentioned processes. If higher purity is needed, potash may be recrystallized from [[methanol]] or [[ethanol]], but this is a very inconvenient process.

Hardwood ash tends to consist of about 10% potash, therefore, if one fully leaches their wood ash, they are likely to get 1 g of potash for every 10 g of wood ash. However, this is rather energy inefficient as it necessitates boiling off exponentially more water per amount of potash. This, combined with the fact that anyone rebuilding society is likely to have a massive surplus of wood ash from heating, cooking, metallurgy, etc. means that it is generally advisable to only seep out about half of that amount.

User:Kovoc

2025-05-08T10:24:27Z

Kovoc: Added contributions

I joined this project on May 7th and I am very excited to find it. I have long been interested in the idea of rebuilding society, so I am excited to share my knowledge on this matter. My reading has been most extensive in the fields of medicine, chemistry, and agriculture. If you'd like to request that I write or expand an article pertaining to any of those topics, I'd be happy to oblige!

== My Contributions ==
Rewrote [[Penicillin]]

Created [[Potash]]

Potash

2025-05-08T10:23:34Z

Kovoc: Created page

[[File:Campfire scar 08319.JPG|thumb|Wood ash from a campfire, a major source of potash.]]
Potassium carbonate, or potash, is a carbonate salt notable for its presence in wood ash and ease of extraction therefrom. Potash has several uses and is extremely simple to produce in large quantities even with the most basic of technology, this makes it a critical primitive chemical feedstock. It may be used to produce [[lye]] by a reaction with slaked lime (calcium hydroxide). It is a necessary compound for the production of [[saltpeter]] from organic material and may also be used in baking as a leavening agent.

== Production ==
Potash is extremely simple to make, in fact it doesn't require the use of any chemical reaction, only a simple extraction. All that is needed are a piece of cloth, two containers (one wider than the other), and a lot of water. First, cut a hole in the bottom of the wider container and stuff the cloth down in the bottom to act as a filter. Next, place the wider container over top of the other container, so that any liquid from the top drains into the bottom. Now, fill the top container with wood ash and begin pouring water through the wood ash. Continue this until the water runs clear (or, relatively clear if energy is being conserved). Now, all that needs to be done is boiling down the liquid. This should be done in a non-metallic container (glazed pottery, glass, etc.) as potash is mildly caustic. What is left will be relatively pure potash which can be used for any of the above mentioned processes. If higher purity is needed, potash may be recrystallized from [[methanol]] or [[ethanol]], but this is a very inconvenient process.

Lye

2025-05-08T10:12:21Z

Kovoc: Added indents

Lye

2025-05-08T10:11:42Z

Kovoc: Fixed errors in production section

User:Kovoc

2025-05-08T09:29:27Z

Kovoc:

Penicillin

2025-05-08T09:16:35Z

Kovoc: Extensive additions and rewrite.

[[File:Penicillin Production at the Royal Navy Medical School, Clevedon, Somerset, 1944 A25174.jpg|thumb|Mass production of penicillin in flasks.]]
Penicillins are a group of beta-lactam antibiotics produced by the mold species ''Penicillium chrysogenum'' and ''P. rubens'', which were first discovered in 1928 by Sir Alexander Fleming. Penicillin has a long history of use, ever since 1939 when it was first isolated by a team lead by Howard Florey and Ernst Chain, and was the second antibacterial drug to be used in humans, after the compound sulfanilamide. Penicillin is much safer, much more potent, and more broad spectrum than sulfanilamide, allowing it to be used in many more infections.

However it should be noted that some infections will not respond to penicillin. This may be due to innate immunity of the bacterium or from developed resistance to the effects of the drug. Most forms of bacterial GI tract infections do not respond to treatment with penicillin (although, fortunately, many will respond to sulfonamide treatment). Most forms of pneumonia, meningitis, and gangrene respond well to treatment with penicillin. There is no universal way of knowing how effective penicillin will be without possessing a culture of the bacterium. If a culture has been produced, however, it is simple to form dilutions of the antibiotic and assay its efficacy by that manner. This also helps in the process of calculating doses and allows for as much of the precious drug to be conserved as possible.

== Resistance ==
Seeing as penicillin is such an old and widely used antibiotic, resistance to it is relatively widespread among infectious bacteria. The most notable penicillin-resistant bacterium is ''Staphylococcus aureus'', a very common cause of wound infections. In fact, most ''Staphylococcus spp.'' now possess some degree of resistance to penicillin. Streptococci have been much slower in developing resistance, and penicillin may still be used to treat streptococcal pneumonia, the most common form of pneumonia, and scarlet fever. However, some strains of ''S. pneumoniae'' have managed to develop resistance.

Developed resistance is not the only source of problems, however. Certain bacteria have an innate resistance to it. The most clinically significant class of these are the enterobacteria, pathogenic and symbiotic members of the family Enterobacteriaceae. These bacteria are common causes of bacterial diarrhea, both opportunistic and otherwise. ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', a soil bacterium commonly implicated in wound infections characterized by a greenish-blue exudate, have long had penicillin resistance and many strains are in fact multi-drug resistant.

Perhaps the most consequential bacterium with innate resistance, however, is ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' the causative agent of tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is infamously difficult to treat, and even today, the only way to cure the infection is with a harsh cocktail of broad-spectrum antibiotics and antituberculars. Penicillin is wholly ineffective at treating tuberculosis.

== Production ==
Penicillins are a relatively simple class of antibiotics to produce. ''Penicillium spp.'' are cosmopolitan in their distribution, are easily cultured, and they are very harmless. In addition, ''Penicillium spp.'' are unique in their morphology relative to other genus, making it much easier to identify the mold. Bear in mind that the following procedure will produce penicillin G (see ''Use'' section below).

The first step to the production of penicillin is to identify the mold. ''Penicillium spp.'' generally like to grow in acidic environments, and thus the classic story of an ultra-high producing strain being discovered on an Illinois cantaloupe is not without merit, as cantaloupes are mildly acidic fruits. Although morphology could easily be used to differentiate geni, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'' would be difficult to discern from other species of ''Penicillium'' from morphology. Therefore, it makes sense to make use of its antibiotic production to identify it. Simply cultivate the mold to be tested along with some bacterium known to be susceptible to penicillin in Petri dishes. Lactococci and Streptcocci (from fermented milk products and saliva, respectively) work well for this purpose, however care must be taken when handling the latter, which can be pathogenic. If the mold is penicillin-producing, the characteristic "lytic ring" will form around the mold colony (a ring with no bacterial growth) and the agar will turn a golden yellow. Once this activity is identified, simply subculture the mold which will be used in the next step.

Now it is necessarily to select the container to be used in the cultivation of the mold. This is of greater importance than one might imagine, as using an improperly chosen container will massively impair yield. Most forms of ''Penicillium chrysogenum'' are top fermenting, meaning that they will not grow in media even if it is aerated. Seeing, in addition, that it is unlikely that complex aeration equipment would be available to anyone seeking to rebuild society, it is necessary to rely on the mold's natural inclination to grow at the top of the culture medium. However, this poses new problems, as it means that only the topmost section of the broth will be colonized by the mold. Therefore, the containers in which the mold is cultivated must be relatively flat. Florey and Chain used modified bedpans placed on bookshelves to produce the massive amounts of culture necessary for their experiments.<ref>UK Central Office of Information (1964). ''[https://wellcomecollection.org/works/gktfmeyt The Discovery of Penicillin]''</ref>

Next, one must select the culture medium to be used for the production. The culture which Florey and Chain used was Czapek-Dox medium, a medium composed primarily of sucrose and [[Saltpeter|potassium nitrate]] with some substances to provide ions and buffer the solution, however, this is a very inefficient way of growing the mold. For reasons still not entirely known, surface cultures using a by-product of corn processing called corn steep liquor allows for a truly monumental increase in yield, from 5 to 20 times more penicillin than Czapek-Dox medium. It is '''very''' important to note that [[Distillation|distilled]] water must be used for all preparations made for the cultivation of ''Penicillium chrysogenum''. While the mold is scarcely affected by metal ions in water, the penicillin it produces very much is, to the point that even a bit of metallic contamination can completely spoil an entire batch.<ref>Fleming, Alexander (1946). ''[https://archive.org/details/penicillin0000unse Penicillin, Its Practical Application]''</ref> This medium is then inoculated with the mold previously isolated.

The mold is then grown at room temperature (the mold is very hardy and does not require temperature controls). After approximately 10 days, the mycelium will have completely colonized the broth, and it is at this point that the steps of culturing the mold are finished, and the extraction begins. The extraction is simple, and merely consists of an acid-base extraction. Pure penicillin G is a water-insoluble, acidic compound, so it can be quite easily separated from solution by first acidifying the broth and extracting with an immiscible solvent. Traditionally diethyl ether, chloroform and DCM would also work, and even ethyl acetate could be substituted, although with a significant loss of yield. Next, the immiscible solvent would be separated from the broth and the penicillin rendered soluble in water with a base (typically sodium or potassium carbonate, as hydroxides are too harsh and will destroy the unstable penicillin). This process would continue multiple times, transferring the penicillin between diethyl ether and water. At the end, the diethyl ether could be evaporated and a crude form of penicillin would be left.

This penicillin, although no longer toxic, would still require further purification to be used with absolute safety, as in this form it has a much higher chance of causing anaphylactic shock. This purification would typically be in the form of a chromatography column. However, it is nonetheless pure enough to have the chance of helping more than it injures when injected, which the broth obviously could never do.

== Use ==
Not all penicillins are created equal and some are more useful than others for certain applications. The majority of penicillin produced by the mold is penicillin G. Penicillin G is ''not'' bioavailable orally and is almost entirely destroyed by the stomach acid. As a consequence of this, penicillin G must always be injected, typically intravenously, as it is extremely painful to inject the soluble salt into a muscle (it is, nonetheless, not typically dangerous to do it this way).

The form of penicillin most people are familiar with is penicillin V, which is a chemical modification of penicillin G which allows it to be bioavailable. It would be almost entirely impossible to produce penicillin V on a small scale, and so any attempted treatment with penicillin necessitates the use of IV injection. This is one major reason why penicillin should only be used when absolutely necessary. Not only is it incredibly difficult to produce, it also requires the use of IV injection, often in situations where modern sanitation and sterilization standards are impractical or impossible.

User:Kovoc

2025-05-08T07:24:51Z

Kovoc: Created my own page

Talk:Still

2025-05-08T07:21:52Z

Kovoc: Created talk page; suggested merge

==Merge Proposal==
I'd like to suggest that this page be merged with the more general article [[Distillation]], seeing as a [[still]] is merely a subtype of distillation apparatus and would not be the only one used if it was necessary to rebuild society. [[User:Kovoc|Kovoc]] ([[User talk:Kovoc|talk]]) 07:21, 8 May 2025 (UTC)

Distillation

2025-05-08T00:41:40Z

Kovoc: Major rewrite

[[File:BatchDistill.svg|thumb|A diagram of a simple still, in which component A is the one being purified]]

'''Distillation''' is a process of separating components of a mixture whose boiling points differ. It is preformed by heating a mixture and condensing the resulting vapours. There are two major forms of distillation which are commonly used both industrially and in the laboratory, simple and fractional.<ref>Vogel, Arthur I. (1989) ''[https://archive.org/details/TextbookOfPracticalOrganicChemistry5thEd Vogel's Textbook of Practical Organic Chemistry] (5th ed.)''</ref>

Some mixtures may be separated using [[Still|simple distillation]], if their boiling points are sufficiently different from each other. The classic example is that of water (bp 100°C) and ethanol (bp 78°C) which, although requiring multiple simple distillations to reach appreciable purity, can nonetheless be purified using simple distillation.

However, in some cases, simple distillation is not sufficient due to how similar the components boiling points are and fractional distillation becomes necessary, wherein an apparatus called a fractionating column is used to more precisely select for a single boiling point. A common example is that of acetone (bp 56°C) and [[methanol]] (bp 65°C), which is of great importance to anyone attempting to produce either of these compounds by the traditional wood gasification approach.

There are numerous applications of distillation, such as purifying and separating impurities in chemical compounds and cleansing [[water]] from bacteria, fungi and some viruses. Distillation was one of the major purification methods which lead to the development of modern chemistry and it remains integral.

Methanol

2025-05-08T00:21:37Z

Kovoc: Can't dry methanol

[[File:Methanol Lewis.svg|thumb|250px|Chemical structure of methanol]]

'''Methanol''', also known as '''wood alcohol''', is an organic chemical and the simplest aliphatic alcohol, with the formula CH3OH. It is a light, volatile, colourless, flammable liquid with a distinctive alcoholic odour similar to that of ethanol (potable alcohol). Today, methanol is mainly produced industrially by hydrogenation of carbon monoxide.

Historically, however, methanol was produced via destructive wood distillation. This involved gasifying the wood in a retort, then condensing the vapours to methanol. This would need to be fractionally distilled to remove tar, off-products, terpenes and water.

== Uses ==
It is used as a precursor to other commodity chemicals, including formaldehyde, acetic acid, methyl tert-butyl ether, methyl benzoate, anisole, peroxyacids, as well as a host of more specialised chemicals.

Methanol is especially useful in the trans-esterfication of triglycerides into biodiesel. This process involves adding a strong base such as sodium or potassium hydroxide into methanol, adding the oil and then vigorously mixing. The methanol forms a temporary complex with the hydroxide in question that is able to liberate the ester of the triglyceride and supplant it with the methanol. This process liberates glycerine which is a useful byproduct.

== Dependencies ==
* [[Carbon]]
* [[Hydrogen]]
* [[Oxygen]]
** '''Methanol'''

== See also ==
<div style="column-count:2">
* [[Ammonia]]
* [[Boric acid]]
* [[Carbon dioxide]]
* [[Cyanide]]
* [[Ethanol]]
* [[Ethylene glycol]]
* [[Methane]]
* [[Nitric acid]]
* [[Nitroglycerin]]
* [[Saltpeter]]
* [[Sulfuric acid]]
* [[Water]]
* [[Chemical compounds]]
</div>

== References ==
{{wa|Methanol}}

[[Category:Organic compounds]]