Wikiciv - User contributions [en]

Copper

2023-01-06T17:47:31Z

CTabarrok: Melting point

[[File:Cu-TableImage.svg|thumb|200px|Position of copper in the periodic table.]]
[[File:Copper-21991.jpg|thumb|200px|Copper.]]

'''Copper''' is a [[Chemical elements|chemical element]] with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity and has a melting point of 1085 degrees Celsius. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orange color. Copper is used as a conductor of [[heat]] and [[electricity]], as a building material, and as a constituent of various metal alloys.

== Natural sources==

Copper can be found in pure or nearly-pure nuggets as "native" copper in several places, including in the upper peninsula of Michigan and Coro Coro, Bolivia. Copper can also be obtained from [[Copper Ore|copper ore]] by the process of [[copper smelting]].

== Uses ==
Copper is very ductile and electrically conductive, making [[copper wire]] a common choice for electrical circuits. Copper can be alloyed with other metals, for instance with tin to create [[bronze]] and with [[zinc]] to create [[brass]]. It can also be used for ornamentation, although it does slowly oxidize forming a green patina.

== Dependencies ==
*[[Copper ore]]
**'''Copper'''
***[[Copper wire]]
*** [[Scrap copper]]
**[[Tin]]
*** [[Bronze]]
** [[Zinc]]
*** [[Brass]]
*[[Bloomery Furnace|Bloomery furnace]]
*[[Kiln]]

==See also==
<div style="column-count:2">
* [[Aluminum]]
* [[Arsenic]]
* [[Gold]]
* [[Iron]]
* [[Lead]]
* [[Manganese]]
* [[Nickel]]
* [[Tin]]
* [[Titanium]]
* [[Zinc]]
* [[Scrap copper]]
* [[Chemical elements]]
</div>

==References==
{{wa|Copper}}

[[Category:Copper]]

Concrete

2022-12-13T22:42:01Z

CTabarrok:

[[File:Camion toupie à Oyonnax en août 2017.jpg|thumb|Concrete mixer in France.]]

'''Concrete''' is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid [[cement]] (cement paste) that hardens (cures) over time. Concrete is the second-most-used substance in the world after [[water]], and is the most widely used building material. When aggregate is mixed with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts with the water through a process called concrete hydration that hardens over several hours to form a hard matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. This time allows concrete to not only be cast in forms but also to have a variety of tooled processes preformed.

Concrete is distinct from mortar. Whereas concrete is itself a building material, mortar is a bonding agent that typically holds [[Brick|bricks]], tiles and other masonry units together.

Once allowed to cure, concrete is capable of resisting extremely large loads in compression. However, concrete is much weaker in tensile strength than compressive strength. It it for this reason that it is often reinforced with high tensile strength materials, most commonly in the form of steel rebar, but notably also in the forms of fiberglass.

== Dependencies ==

* [[Cement]]
* [[Water]]
** '''Concrete'''

== See also ==
<div style="column-count:2">
* [[Brick]]
* [[Cement]]
* [[Gravel]]
* [[Lime Concrete]]
* [[Lime Mortar]]
* [[Sand]]
* [[Sandstone]]
</div>

== References ==
{{wa|Concrete}}

[[Category:Building materials]]
[[Category:Stubs]]

Screw

2022-10-13T14:37:59Z

CTabarrok: Screws Screws Screws

[[File:Wood screws.jpg|thumb|A screw showcasing the pointed tip that helps to introduce the inclined plane to the receiving material by means of drilling. This screw is most likely used for wood joinery. ]]
[[File:18-04-13-Schrauben-Schlüssel RRK3415.jpg|thumb|A collection of screws, with female, male, female, and female head types, left to right]]
Put most simply, a screw is an inclined plane, that has been wrapped around a cylinder. Screws convert rotational energy into axial displacement, which, when space is limited by a constricting force, creates axial force, driving the screw into the receiving material. They hold the materials together by increasing the surface area in contact with the material (with the spiral), maximizing friction in the axial direction. Screws can be made of many material types, and importantly must be stronger than the material they are drilled into, otherwise requiring a threaded shaft to receive them. Ductile metal screws are used most often in wooden construction because they are easier to manufacture by casting in a mold and are stronger than the wood they are screwed into. Screws vary by the direction and frequency of their spiral pattern, and how they are turned. Many screws feature heads with gaps meant to receive a tool, while others have heads such as a hexbolt head, where tools are fit around their outside. These are colloquially known as female and male screw heads.

Pulley

2022-10-13T14:25:26Z

CTabarrok: Created page for pulleys

[[File:NSRW Single movable pulley.jpg|thumb|Pulley C is a static pulley, while pulley B is movable. Thus, a compound pulley system is shown, and assuming ideal conditions, pulley B will remain in it's horizontal position while moving up when the rope is pulled. ]]
A pulley, is most simply, a wheel and shaft, that runs along a rope or belt. The pulley can move or be static, but the important part is that it translates the motion of the rope/belt into rotational energy of the wheel. When the pulley moves freely along a taut rope, it does the opposite, translating the rotation of the wheel, into motion of the pulley. Essentially, pulleys reduce the friction that would otherwise occur if say, the rope were run through a simple ring or if a hook were used to attach a moving load along the ropes length. There are two types of pulley, the fixed and movable pulley, which can be combined in myriad modes and configurations to create compound pulley systems, which can be designed for specialized tasks and scenarios.

Tympanum

2022-10-13T13:40:46Z

CTabarrok: they -> the

[[File:MicrosoftTeams-image (3).png|thumb|A model of the roman Tympanum, in the cutaway, you can see the exposed spiral paddles. Their curvature is key to creating a path for the water to continuously flow to a local low point despite being raised by the wheel's rotation. ]]
The Tympanum is a water wheel that not only produces mechanical energy as the rotation of it's shaft, but also lifts water to higher elevations. The Tympanum dates back to the Roman empire, where it was used to feed water from rivers and streams into aqueducts and cisterns. It was usually used to move water that was already running, so that it rotated without any outside energy input, but it can also be turned by man or animal power if the water is coming from a still source, such as a lake or pond. The tympanum is at it's heart is a water wheel with the paddles fully enclosed between two planes, and a hollow shaft at the middle that allows water to flow through it. As the water flows past the wheel, and the wheel turns, the curved paddles "scoop" the water out and raise it by means of rotation. Once the compartment is above the central shaft, the water then flows towards the lowest point, which is the hollow shaft, and out to whatever pipe or storage awaits it. Some limitations of the tympanum are that it can only raise water to an elevation just under half it's total diameter, requires a running water source to power it, and cannot capture all the flow of it's source water unless it is powered by means other than flow.

Tympanum

2022-10-13T13:40:16Z

CTabarrok: Created page, added image, which I edited in paint to make it count as original work

[[File:MicrosoftTeams-image (3).png|thumb|A model of the roman Tympanum, in the cutaway, you can see the exposed spiral paddles. Their curvature is key to creating a path for the water to continuously flow to a local low point despite being raised by the wheel's rotation. ]]
The Tympanum is a water wheel that not only produces mechanical energy as the rotation of it's shaft, but also lifts water to higher elevations. They Tympanum dates back to the Roman empire, where it was used to feed water from rivers and streams into aqueducts and cisterns. It was usually used to move water that was already running, so that it rotated without any outside energy input, but it can also be turned by man or animal power if the water is coming from a still source, such as a lake or pond. The tympanum is at it's heart is a water wheel with the paddles fully enclosed between two planes, and a hollow shaft at the middle that allows water to flow through it. As the water flows past the wheel, and the wheel turns, the curved paddles "scoop" the water out and raise it by means of rotation. Once the compartment is above the central shaft, the water then flows towards the lowest point, which is the hollow shaft, and out to whatever pipe or storage awaits it. Some limitations of the tympanum are that it can only raise water to an elevation just under half it's total diameter, requires a running water source to power it, and cannot capture all the flow of it's source water unless it is powered by means other than flow.

File:MicrosoftTeams-image (3).png

2022-10-13T13:38:28Z

CTabarrok:

A model of the roman tympanum. In the cutaway, you can see the curvature of the paddles, which is key to it's function.

Water

2022-10-05T16:19:08Z

CTabarrok: Added treatment section and scaffolding for other sections

[[File:Water_drop_001.jpg|thumb|250px|A globule of liquid water, and the concave depression and rebound in water caused by something dropping through the water surface.]]

'''Water''' (chemical formula H2O) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as a solvent). It is vital for all known forms of life, despite providing neither food, [[energy]], nor organic micronutrients.

A number of natural states of water exist. It forms precipitation in the form of rain and aerosols in the form of fog. Clouds consist of suspended droplets of water and ice, its solid state. When finely divided, crystalline ice may precipitate in the form of snow. The gaseous state of water is steam or water vapor. Water covers about 71% of the Earth's surface, mostly in seas and oceans, about 96.5%.

Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world, providing 6.5% of global protein. Large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and [[Heat|heating]], in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of substances both mineral and organic; as such it is widely used in industrial processes, and in cooking and washing.

== Collection ==
Wells

Dams

Snowmelt

Rain Basin

Evapotranspiration

== Treatment ==
[[File:Wastewater Clarifiers.jpg|thumb|337x337px|Three wastewater clarifiers from above, with skimmers shown]]
Water treatment is extremely important to human health, especially in high density environments, and is responsible for one of the largest gains in human life expectancy, on par with antibiotics and germ theory.

At its core, water treatment consists of 3 component processes. These are: settlement, filtration, and disinfection.

=== Settlement ===
Settlement operates mainly on the principle of gravity, and focuses on channeling water into large containers called clarifiers with high volume and surface area. Water spends a long time in the clarifier, where solid particles suspended in the water are allowed to settle to the bottom and accumulate, forming a sludge layer that can be removed at a later time. A preparatory step to this process called flocculation is key to settlement, because it is during this step that coagulants are added to the water, allowing small particles to bind together and form larger, heavier particles that will settle to the bottom of the clarifier more quickly. The water in a clarifier is cleanest near the top, where the surface can be skimmed of any floating particles and where the water can be allowed to flow over a weir an into the next process station.

[[File:The different layers of a filter used at drinking water facilities.jpg|left|thumb|220x220px|During filtration, water passes through filters, some made of layers of sand, gravel, and charcoal that help remove even smaller particles.]]

=== Filtration ===
The next step is filtration. Filtration has two components, biological and physical. Physical filtration is relatively straightforward. Water is flown over a semi-permeable surface, such as cloth or a bed of sand and crushed charcoal. Particles that remain in the water after clarification are then caught either because they are too large to fit through the holes in the surface or because they bind to the surface of the sand/charcoal. The sand/charcoal bed also provides a medium for friendly bacteria to form colonies and make biofilms, so that they can process any dissolved nutrients such as nitrogen or phosphorus out of the water and release it as carbon dioxide. In order to treat waters that contain dissolved metals, a bed of ionic sand can be used, which form bonds with the dissolved metals and capture them in the process. In treatment of extremely nutrient dense waters such as wastewater, aeration may be effective in feeding these bacteria oxygen, accelerating the rate at which they digest these nutrients.
[[File:Distillation by Retort.png|thumb|176x176px|Shown here is a simple distillation apparatus, where the dirty water is heated by the burner, turns to steam, and then condenses in the second bulb, which is kept cool by the water from the tap. ]]

=== Disinfection ===
The last component is disinfection. Disinfection generally is done one of three ways, either using chlorination, ozone, or ultraviolet light. However, these methods are generally quite complicated to implement in a scenario where a manufacturing base is not readily available. Therefore, the simplest way to disinfect water is to boil and capture the resulting steam, thus distilling it. Although it is energy intensive, distillation can kill bacterial pathogens and denature viral threats quite effectively.

== Conveyance ==

== As transport ==

== See also ==
* [[Hydrogen]]
* [[Oil]]
* [[Oxygen]]

== References ==
{{wa|Water}}

[[Category:Uncategorized articles]]
[[Category:Stubs]]

Screw Pump

2022-10-05T14:20:06Z

CTabarrok: Links

[[File:Archimede's screw.jpg|thumb|Here, a hollow tube is wrapped around a central shaft, which is turned by the hand crank. Because the shaft is at an angle, the tube has low points that catch water, and as the shaft turns, the water travels "up" the tube by means of gravity forcing it to the next local low point, until it reaches the top]]
The Screw Pump is one of the simplest positive displacement pumps, and has been used for thousands of years to move water, mainly for irrigation purposes.
[[File:Archimedes-screw one-screw-threads with-ball 3D-view animated.gif|thumb|An example of the Archimedes Screw in action, in the enclosed screwed-shaft configuration.]]
A screw pump can have a few different configurations, including a tube wrapped around a shaft, or a tube enclosing a shaft with a screw wrapped around it.

Probably the easiest way to manufacture a screw pump would be to opt to use the tube wrapping configuration, perhaps molding a [[clay]] or porcelain tube around a central shaft, and then firing it in a [[kiln]]. It's conceivable that this fashion of screw pump could also be assembled from a joining of segmented parts, perhaps constructed out of wood, which would make adding or subtracting length easier, as long as some method of watertight joinery could be used. The method of the enclosed screw is dependent on tight manufacturing tolerances that would be difficult to achieve without machining tools.

Screw Pump

2022-10-05T14:14:39Z

CTabarrok: Elaborated on manufacturing pros and cons

[[File:Archimede's screw.jpg|thumb|Here, a hollow tube is wrapped around a central shaft, which is turned by the hand crank. Because the shaft is at an angle, the tube has low points that catch water, and as the shaft turns, the water travels "up" the tube by means of gravity forcing it to the next local low point, until it reaches the top]]
The Screw Pump is one of the simplest positive displacement pumps, and has been used for thousands of years to move water, mainly for irrigation purposes.
[[File:Archimedes-screw one-screw-threads with-ball 3D-view animated.gif|thumb|An example of the Archimedes Screw in action, in the enclosed screwed-shaft configuration.]]
A screw pump can have a few different configurations, including a tube wrapped around a shaft, or a tube enclosing a shaft with a screw wrapped around it.

Probably the easiest way to manufacture a screw pump would be to opt to use the tube wrapping configuration, perhaps molding a clay or porcelain tube around a central shat, and then firing it in a kiln. It's conceivable that this fashion of screw pump could also be assembled from a joining of segmented parts, perhaps constructed out of wood, which would make adding or subtracting length easier, as long as some method of watertight joinery could be used. The method of the enclosed screw is dependent on tight manufacturing tolerances that would be difficult to achieve without machining tools.

Category:Simple Machines

2022-10-04T18:49:55Z

CTabarrok:

Simple Machines are the building blocks of more complex machines, and use mechanical advantage to multiply force. They Are extremely useful, both as tools to create more complex machines and do work more efficiently, and as concepts to help in understanding existing and complex mechanical systems.

The Six Classical Simple Machines are as follows:

[[Lever]]

[[Wheel and Axle]]

Pulley

[[Inclined Plane]]

[[Wedge]]

Screw

Wheel and axle

2022-10-04T18:49:03Z

CTabarrok: Created the page, will complete later

The wheel and axle is one of 6 classical simple machines. Most simply, the wheel and axle allow the user to change the distance over which force must be applied, and by increasing that distance, they reduce the amount of force required to do the equivalent work.

Category:Simple Machines

2022-10-04T18:42:55Z

CTabarrok: Created page listing the 6 classical simple machines

Simple Machines are the building blocks of more complex machines, and use mechanical advantage to multiply force. They Are extremely useful, both as tools to create more complex machines and do work more efficiently, and as concepts to help in understanding existing and complex mechanical systems.

The Six Classical Simple Machines are as follows:

Lever

Wheel and Axle

Pulley

Inclined Plane

Wedge

Screw

Chisel

2022-10-04T18:31:16Z

CTabarrok: typo

[[File:E2414447-1cf5-4369-a93e-fecf7d97c5ae.jpg|thumb|200px|A collection of flint chisels. The chisel is used by facing one end into the material to be carved/chipped, then striking the other end with a hammer or rock to impart force. The struck end is often cushioned by a cloth or hide to prevent the tool itself from chipping.]]
A '''chisel''' is a tool used to chip and carve objects including wood and rock. It is a rod with an angular head that can concentrate a large amount of force in one small area at its point. Chisels are often made from rock or metal. Stones suitable for chiseling should be long enough to be held safely in one hand and thick enough that they do not shatter when struck. Quartzite and [[flint]] are good choices and can be distinguished by their glassy/crystalline and dark grey appearances respectively, usually in areas with [[limestone]] deposits. The user strikes the handle or padded end of the chisel with a heavy object such as a [[hammer]] or large rock, angling the chisel head to achieve the desired direction of chipping. In order to use a chisel on something, the material being chiseled must be softer than the material the chisel head is made from. For example, a chisel head made of soft [[sandstone]] would itself break if one attempted to use it to chisel a harder material such as [[obsidian]].

== See also ==
* [[Knife]]
* [[Needle]]
* [[Spear]]
* [[Tools]]

[[Category:Tools]]
[[Category:Stubs]]

Screw Pump

2022-10-04T15:00:07Z

CTabarrok: Created page for Screw Pumps and added article scaffolding

Needle

2022-08-09T12:20:27Z

CTabarrok: Created the page for needles describing how they work

Scientific Method

2022-08-07T11:04:14Z

CTabarrok: I wrote about the scientific method and detailed how to use it as a model of thinking

The Scientific Method is an idea that people use as a tool to test other ideas and determine whether or not they accurately reflect the world around us.

=== Steps ===
The first step to using the scientific method is to ask a question. These usually involve the words: Who ,What, When, Where, Why, and How.

The second step to using the scientific method is to do background research. Has someone else already asked and answered your question? If they have, do their results align or differ with your expectations?

The third step is to construct a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a testable statement that makes a prediction about what you think will happen. An easy format to construct a hypothesis is "If I do ____ then I think ______ will happen". Try to opt for measurable results.

The fourth step is to test your hypothesis by doing an experiment. An experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and tells you if your hypothesis is supported or not by your observations. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one part of the experiment at a time while keeping all other parts the same. You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't just an accident.

The fifth step is to verify that your experiment is working. Did you keep everything the same each time? Were the results the same each time? If not, what changed? Consider changes you could make to improve your experiment.

This feeds into the sixth step, which is to analyze your data and draw conclusions. Did what happened match what you said would happen? Why or why not? If not, adjust your hypothesis and try again from step three.

The last step is to communicate your results. Tell people what you learned and record your steps so that they can verify your results. Now you have created new knowledge that was not there before.
[[File:Scientific-method-steps.png|thumb|A diagram showing the steps of the scientific method.]]

File:Scientific-method-steps.png

2022-08-07T10:46:14Z

CTabarrok:

A diagram showing the steps of the scientific method.